A r c h i v e d  I n f o r m a t i o n

B. Findings about the Design of LEP Student Programs

Each of the exemplary schools exhibited an unique approach to the design of their language development programs. Schools developed LEP programs in response to their own demographic context, the preferences of parents of LEP students, district and state policies for LEP student programs, and the school's vision for their educational program. Five study sites relied on primary language-based LEP student programs, one used an English-based program with support in the primary language, and two schools employed both sheltered English instruction and primary language instruction with LEP students.

Finding #3.5

Adaptation of LEP Student Program Models. Exemplary schools adapted LEP student program models in response to their own conditions and student needs. They addressedhow the students' primary language would be used for instruction, both to further language development and to convey academic subject matter.

The case study schools addressed a number of options for program design, including how the program would use the native language of the LEP students and English in instruction. The decision regarding the language of instruction is fundamental to the design of the language development program. The exemplary schools made choices based on the forces outlined in the first part of this chapter and, as a result of those choices, each school's language development program was distinctive.

Table I-3.3 illustrates the basic program model with respect to the use of students' primary language and English. The program models that schools adapted to their own needs were:

• Primary Language-based Models. Programs that relied on students' primary language for instruction varied in their design and intent. Schools that used the primary language of their students did so for two reasons: first, to deliver comprehensible instruction to their LEP students and second, to support students' ability to develop (or maintain) literacy in their first language. Two strategies employing the primary language were implemented at the exemplary schools--bilingual and two-way bilingual programs.

• English-based Models. The second major category of programs for LEP students were those which use sheltered instructional techniques in English to teach LEP students. Two of the three sites using sheltered English instruction (Linda Vista and Wiggs) supplemented that instruction with primary language instruction.

School	Bilingual	Two-Way Bilingual	Sheltered English
Del Norte Elementary	X
Hollibrook Elementary	X
Linda Vista Elementary	X (Spanish-only)		X
Graham and Parks	X
Inter-American		X
Hanshaw Middle	X (Spanish-only)		X
Horace Mann Middle	X
Wiggs Middle			X

Primary Language-based Models: Bilingual. Bilingual programs rely on the primary language to teach academic content while students are learning English. They develop the student's primary language skills, but vary in the emphasis placed on teaching students to read and write in their primary language. The six exemplary schools showed some variation in their emphasis on primary language literacy. Graham and Parks and Hollibrook provided instruction in the students' primary language to develop oral language skills and to teach academic content. Students learned to read in English and there was no explicit goal of developing primary language literacy. In contrast, two study elementary schools (Del Norte and Linda Vista) designed bilingual programs that instructed in the primary language in the early grades and transitioned to all-English instruction by fourth or fifth grade. Linda Vista offered a bilingual program to Spanish-speaking LEP students and sheltered English with native language support to students who spoke other languages. Hanshaw and Horace Mann Middle Schools offered bilingual programs for Spanish-speaking LEP students that provided Spanish instruction in several content areas. Horace Mann also provided primary language instruction for Chinese newcomer students. Boxes I-3.2 and I-3.3 provide details on the implementation of bilingual programs at the exemplary schools.

Box I-3.2 Exemplary Schools Adapt Bilingual Program Models in Response to Local Goals and Conditions Del Norte Elementary School and Linda Vista Elementary School. Some bilingual programs are designed to develop and maintain literacy in the LEP students' primary language as well as provide a solid transition to English. As English skills are introduced in the middle to end of elementary school, literacy in the primary language is maintained by explicit instruction in reading and writing in the primary language. These programs generally prepare students for all-English instruction by fifth or sixth grade. Del Norte and Linda Vista classes typified this approach. Students learned to read first in Spanish and were transitioned to English reading at about the third grade. Spanish literacy was supported through fifth grade in bilingual classrooms where, although instruction was largely in English, the students' primary language was also used for instruction. Hollibrook Elementary School. The Spanish bilingual programs at Hollibrook utilized students' primary language, but varied the pace of transition to English and the emphasis on developing primary language literacy. Typically, students' transition to all-English instruction was accomplished by third or fourth grade. Graham and Parks School. In Graham and Parks' kindergarten through 8th grade bilingual program, Creole was used for instruction but the attainment of Creole literacy was not the primary thrust of the program. Students exited Creole bilingual programs at Graham and Parks at various grade levels, depending on when they entered the school and their level of previous schooling. Creole-speaking students who entered in kindergarten exited by fourth grade, whereas Creole-speaking students who entered at third grade typically exited in seventh or eighth grade. Students who entered Graham and Parks with high levels of literacy in French or Creole, however, generally exited to mainstream classes within two years of entry.

Primary language instruction for LEP students in grades 4 through 8 offers powerful advantages. Primary language-based programs provide full access to core content instruction in mathematics, science, social studies, and language arts for LEP students. In study schools using the primary language, students were provided instruction at grade level without the barriers posed by limited English fluency. ⁴ Qualified bilingual instructors used appropriate mathematical and scientific vocabulary in the primary languages in mathematics and science classes. In schools where study observers were able to observe mathematics and science lessons taught by the same teacher in both the primary language and using sheltered techniques, the level of discourse, richness of language, and cognitive development of students was more advanced in primary language classes.

By providing primary language instruction in important school subjects, teachers and other school staff conveyed respect for the primary language to students and their families. Bilingual teachers served as critical language resources for communicating effectively to parents in their primary language. Teachers who shared an ethnicity and culture with their students were valuable to students learning English and provided a critical link between home and school.

Box I-3.3 The Exemplary Middle Schools Varied in Their Use of Students' Primary Language Transition Approaches. At the middle school level, some language development programs used the primary language but did not have as a significant goal development of primary language literacy. Hanshaw Middle School offered primary language instruction to Spanish-speaking LEP students for core instruction in science, math, social studies, and language arts. Spanish was the language of instruction and Spanish books were available for reference, but the main purpose of the program was not promotion of Spanish literacy. Rather, the focus was on comprehension of academic content and preparation for transition to English. Similarly, Horace Mann's program for Cantonese-speaking newcomer students used the students' native language for instruction while preparing students to transition into an all-English environment. Maintenance Approaches. Some middle schools designed programs that used the primary language and sought to maintain primary language literacy. Horace Mann provided Spanish bilingual classes in science and social studies to students in the bilingual strands (some students were native Spanish speakers and some native English speakers who had been enrolled at a two-way bilingual elementary school). Math and language arts were taught in English. The goal of the program was to provide LEP students with access to challenging curriculum and to maintain Spanish literacy. Wiggs provided Spanish language arts instruction to beginning and intermediate LEP students enrolled in sheltered English classes in an effort to help them maintain their Spanish literacy.

Finally, primary language instruction such as that seen at Horace Mann in science and social studies can be used to maintain literacy in the primary language, even when the student is capable of learning in English. This approach developed a more biliterate individual. Wiggs also maintained the primary language of students by offering them a period of instruction in Spanish language arts. Nearly all LEP students entered Wiggs literate in Spanish.

Primary Language-based Models: Two-Way Bilingual. Two-way programs serve both LEP and native English-speaking students in the same program setting with a goal of developing bilingual, biliterate students. Primary language literacy is a goal for LEP students. Native English-speaking students learn the target language, while their LEP classmates learn English. As a result, all students develop literacy in two languages. These programs are sometimes called dual language programs, developmental bilingual, or double immersion, and are found primarily in elementary school settings. Box I-3.4 describes Inter-American's developmental bilingual program.

Box I-3.4 One Exemplary School Offered a Two-Way Bilingual Program Inter-American's language development program provided an excellent example of a two-way bilingual program. At all grade levels, English-dominant and Spanish-dominant students were mixed in the same classroom in roughly equal proportions. The program was based on the philosophy that bilingualism and biliteracy are assets and that with exposure and motivation, children can learn another language. Inter-American's program began in pre-kindergarten with core subjects taught in Spanish. In the early grades, about 80 percent of instruction was in Spanish. Spanish-dominant students received ESL instruction and English-dominant students received instruction in Spanish as a second language. The 80/20 ratio of Spanish to English instruction remained through third grade, with instruction of all core subjects in Spanish. English instruction increased in the middle grades through eighth grade, with instruction divided equally between the two languages.

English-based Models: Sheltered English. High quality sheltered English programs provide access to core content for LEP students while developing their English skills. This approach can be successfully implemented when advanced LEP students have sufficient English oral fluency, reading, and writing skills to benefit from sheltered instruction and when they are literate in their primary language. Sheltered instruction is also used when there are insufficient numbers of students speaking a single language to allow primary language instruction.

Sheltered instruction relies on a variety of gestures, props, and instructional techniques to convey meaning in the classroom. Teachers overcome language barriers by previewing lessons, identifying critical vocabulary words needed for the lesson, using key words and phases consistently, and providing frequent examples. They also use body language, called total physical response, and clearly enunciated oral English. Teachers provide context for learning through field trips, materials brought into the class, and thematic projects which unify content across subject matter. Box I-3.5 illustrates the exemplary schools' approaches to Sheltered English instruction.

Box I-3.5 Exemplary Schools `Sheltered' Instruction to Provide Students with Access to Content While Promoting English Language Development Hanshaw Middle School. Hanshaw used sheltered instruction to teach mathematics, science, social studies, and language arts to advanced Spanish-speaking LEP students and to mixed groups of students speaking South East Asian languages. Sheltered core classes in mathematics/science and language arts/social studies were taught by teachers trained in second language acquisition; some of the teachers were also fluent in Spanish. Wiggs Middle School. Wiggs used sheltered instructional strategies to teach newcomer Spanish-speaking LEP students in a school-within-a-school. Wiggs' sheltered program had three levels. In beginning LAMP, all content classes were taught by specially-trained teachers who used sheltered instruction techniques and clarified content in Spanish. The beginning program also featured Spanish language arts. Intermediate LAMP included sheltered classes, mainstream classes, and Spanish language arts. Advanced transitional students enrolled in mainstream classes and received ESL support from the LAMP program. Linda Vista Elementary School. Linda Vista had ungraded sheltered English classes for students speaking languages other than Spanish. Students were grouped in the classes according to their English language fluency: Entry, Sheltered A, Sheltered B, Transition A, and Transition B classes were available for early childhood (pre-K-K), primary (1-2), middle (3-4), and upper (5-6) elementary grades.

While instruction in sheltered classes is conducted in English, it is highly desirable that the teacher speak the primary language of students so that they can clarify meaning for students when necessary. At Hanshaw and Wiggs bilingual instructors taught sheltered classes for Spanish-speaking LEP students. While desirable, teacher fluency in the primary language of students is not always possible in multilingual settings. For example, in the Linda Vista and Hanshaw sheltered classes in which multiple languages were spoken, teachers did not speak the languages of the students. Study sites demonstrated that delivery of high quality instruction to LEP students in an English-based program is entirely possible if trained teachers are available and they fully participate in the school restructuring and other innovations that support exemplary learning environments.

Finding #3.6

Challenging Content for LEP Students. All the exemplary schools taught challenging content area subjects in primary language with teachers fluent in the primary language and trained in second language acquisition; or in sheltered instruction with teachers trained in second language acquisition and often fluent in the students' primary language.

The high quality LEP programs developed at exemplary schools served as a foundation for challenging instruction in core curriculum areas such as language arts, science and math. Access to challenging content for LEP students was an element of the program at each of the exemplary schools. Language barriers did not interfere with students' access to core content in these areas. Schools either used the native language of LEP students or Sheltered English to provide curriculum access while students mastered English. The exemplary schools maintained the same high expectations for LEP students that they held for all students, and ensured access to high quality curricula that enables content mastery. In many cases, expectations were supplemented by the notion that LEP students would become bilingual and biliterate.

The exemplary schools also incorporated the cultural background and life experiences of their student population into the curriculum in meaningful ways. At Inter-American School, the school's curriculum was built around a study of the Americas and the influences on the people and the cultures of the Americas. The focus on the Americas allowed the school to include in the integrated curriculum an emphasis on the culture and traditions of all of their students.

Although LEP student access to core content in the target subject areas was a selection criterion for the schools examined in the study, it is important to emphasize that the high quality program for LEP students, staffed by qualified faculty, is inextricably linked to the school's ability to deliver challenging core content instruction to LEP students.

Finding #3.7

Contact with Native English-Speaking Students. Exemplary schools provided opportunities for contact between monolingual English speakers and LEP students during instruction in core content, in electives, or in alternative activities such as projects.

Exemplary programs promote interaction between LEP students and native English-speaking students in order to provide a natural environment for English language development as well as to create a positive school climate. The eight study schools used a variety of techniques to mix LEP and native English students.

Study schools designed their programs to mix LEP and native English-speaking students during the school day. In some cases, LEP students and native English-speaking students were together for their core academic instruction. In other cases, students were integrated during elective classes such as music and art as well as during physical education. The exemplary schools also designed schoolwide activities, such as projects or fairs, in which all students participated together.

In three cases, at Inter-American, in team taught classes at Hollibrook, and in Horace Mann's Spanish bilingual program, classes were composed of a balance of Spanish-dominant and English-dominant students. In Inter-American's Developmental Bilingual program, LEP and English-dominant students were together for all of their instruction except ESL and Spanish as a second language (SSL). At Hollibrook, teamed teachers grouped and regrouped the students to address their varying language development needs and to maximize opportunities for natural language development by promoting interaction between LEP and English-only students. In both cases, students served as language role models for each other throughout the school day. Like Inter-American, the Spanish bilingual program at Horace Mann served the dual purpose of fostering Spanish language development for English-dominant students and making challenging content accessible to Spanish-speaking LEP students. The Spanish bilingual classes mixed LEP students with English-dominant students who had attended a two-way bilingual elementary school as well as with native Spanish-speaking students who were fluent in English.

Employing a different approach, Linda Vista also integrated its diverse student population. In the mornings, students were placed according to their primary language and English-fluency level for language arts and social studies instruction. For the remainder of the day, LEP students were integrated with English-only students for mathematics, science, and electives.

A tolerant climate which enhanced the quality of the interactions between LEP and English-only students existed at all of the exemplary schools. If LEP students spoke slower or paused over a word, their monolingual English-speaking peers did not interrupt or give them the answer. The emphasis at the exemplary schools on respecting diversity and cooperation with others helped to create this climate.

Finding #3.8

Transition Strategies. The exemplary schools implemented explicit approaches to the transition of LEP students to English. The characteristics of effective transition strategies included: primary language development as a foundation for English language development; qualified faculty who understood transition issues; in-class grouping strategies, particularly cooperative learning strategies to foster oral and written language production; and instructional support such as after-school tutorials to assist students transitioning to mainstream classes.

Transition to English literacy was a major goal of all the LEP programs examined in the study. The structure of transition depended on the language development program design and the grade structure of the school. Bilingual programs first introduced primary language skills, then supported students' transition to English language reading and writing. Some bilingual programs sought to develop and maintain students' literacy in the primary language while others did not. Similar to bilingual programs, gradual transition to English literacy was accomplished in two-way bilingual programs like the program at Inter-American; by eighth grade, both English-only and LEP students were bilingual and biliterate. In sheltered English programs (i.e., Linda Vista), transition to English literacy occurred throughout the program without a long phase-in period while the primary language was developed. (See Box I-3.6 for insight on student views on transitioning to English.)

Box I-3.6 Student Views on Transition In each school, researchers asked transitioning LEP students what helped them learn English. Their responses were very similar. Students viewed the bilingual program teachers as their primary resource in learning English, followed by fellow students, and older siblings. Students valued after-school tutorial and summer programs, particularly when after-school programs provided primary language support in core subject areas. Students also valued access to libraries and computers. At Graham and Parks, Haitian Creole LEP students who were about to transition to all-English instruction identified the following strategies that helped them to learn English: They tried to read the most advanced book they could, underline parts they don't understand, and ask the teacher for assistance; They watched TV and listened to the radio; They stayed after school to get help with homework; They got help from friends and older siblings. At Hanshaw, transitioning students reported that Hanshaw teachers helped them learn English, particularly those who were patient and answered questions, bilingual teachers, and teachers with a sense of humor. Fellow students also helped them learn. Students valued: Group discussions of reading material; Practice in speaking English in front of the class; Friends who spoke English. An eighth grade student about to transition to all-English instruction at the high school level expressed her view of what helped her at Hanshaw Middle School: "We are always taught to give our personal best, to keep trying. If you're struggling, teachers will help you get the steps to solving the problem. They don't just give you the answer. If you practice you will get better at it."

While program design is important, teacher discretion is equally important in high quality LEP programs. Qualified teachers demonstrate flexibility with the children they are teaching, customizing the transition to English to meet individual needs. Teachers at the exemplary schools did not rigidly adhere to a particular transition model. All of the schools, whether elementary or secondary, that relied on primary language instruction had qualified bilingual teachers who applied their own expertise to the learning needs of children in the classroom.

Despite the distinctions in LEP program design (whether bilingual, two-way bilingual or sheltered), all the study schools shared common features in their approach to transition to English. We discuss the major elements in turn, although these elements were interrelated in practice.

Foundation in the Primary Language. Teachers reported that a solid foundation of primary language literacy was integral to students' ability to make a smooth transition to English. All of the schools encouraged and supported primary language fluency and literacy to some extent. Teachers reported that students who were literate in their primary language learned to read and write in English with less difficulty and frustration.⁵ Some of the programs concentrated on developing primary language literacy skills before attempting transition; others supported primary language literacy while simultaneously teaching English literacy.

Qualified Faculty. All sites relied on trained bilingual or sheltered English teachers to teach LEP students transitioning to all-English instruction. In most sheltered classes, teachers were fluent in the students' native language and could provide clarification. Teachers trained and certified (i.e., California's Language Development Specialist) in second language acquisition taught mainstream content classes at the middle schools. Teachers at the middle grades saw an urgent need to transition students to all-English instruction before they left middle school, because most high school courses were taught in English, especially those that prepared students for college or for high quality school-to-work transitions. Teachers did not hesitate to push students to exercise their vocabulary and ability to express complex academic material in English when able. For example, in a science lesson at Graham and Parks, an 8th grade Creole bilingual student who was transitioning to mainstream instruction reported a science conclusion in Creole to his classmates. The teacher asked him to repeat the thought in English, later reporting that he asked the student to do so "because he can do it."

In-Class Grouping Strategies. Teachers at all the study sites relied heavily on cooperative learning as an important tool in support of student transition. In building groups for cooperative learning, teachers often placed more advanced LEP students in groups with those less advanced to provide both a language role model and support for language development. Students who might be shy about speaking English in front of an entire class were less inhibited in a small group of their peers. A second common grouping strategy involved clustering LEP students speaking the same primary language together in mainstream classes. This enabled students to confer with one another during cooperative learning tasks to clarify meaning and fully participate in the class. Teachers had expertise both in second language acquisition and effective cooperative learning approaches. Teachers were able to facilitate students working together and staying focused on learning assignments. At Hanshaw, for example, this approach enabled advanced LEP students to obtain full access to mainstream science classes at grade level. LEP students were given extra time within the class to complete lab assignments and make journal entries.

Instructional Support for Transitioning Students. All the schools provided some form of extra support, such as after-school tutorials, for transitioning LEP students who were in mainstream classes for part of the school day. These schools viewed educational development as continuous and provided ways for students to extend, support, and enhance their learning. All the exemplary schools provided some type of after-school program. Some schools also had summer programs that targeted LEP students.

Finding #3.9

Approaches to Newcomers. The exemplary schools anticipated the arrival of newcomers and included in the design of their programs for LEP students strategies to meet the needs of new immigrants.

Newcomers are newly arrived LEP students who immigrated to this country after the early elementary grades. While exemplary schools varied in the extent to which newcomers impacted their school, all sites developed proactive approaches to accommodate new LEP students. Depending on the design of the program for LEP students, the exemplary schools either incorporated newcomers into ongoing programs for LEP students or designed special program components to serve newcomers.

Programs that promote the maintenance of students' primary languages tend to be designed in a way that permits the incorporation of newcomers. That is, because primary language instruction is offered at all grade levels, newcomer students can join existing classes. At the exemplary schools, these programs were supplemented by intensive ESL classes. Exemplary programs that did not include primary language instruction throughout the grades designed special classes receive newcomer students. Some of these special programs are described in Box I-3.7 below. All the special newcomer programs feature small class sizes, allowing teachers to individualize instruction for the newly arrived students.

Another issue confronting some of the study sites was the presence of students with little or no previous schooling. To teach adolescent Haitian immigrants with no prior exposure to literacy, a Haitian-born Creole bilingual teacher at Graham and Parks used Paulo Freire's method of teaching literacy, drawing from students' own experiences and Haitian culture to generate stories. Students created stories orally, wrote the stories, and then read them. He asked students working in a small group to talk about universal human experiences. He asked them, "what do you fear?" He wrote their words on the blackboard. In the next step, they used the 16 vocabulary words they had generated to create a folk tale. Then he wrote it on the board. Through this process, the students began to develop literacy.

Box I-3.7 Exemplary Schools Design Programs to Accommodate Newcomer Students Wiggs Middle School. In response to continuous immigration, Wiggs placed students into a school-within-a-school that was designed to assist recent immigrants who had been each in the US for up to three years. Within the LAMP school-within-a-school three options were available for students, depending on their English fluency: beginning, intermediate, and advanced. Students were placed at grade level according to their age and non-literate newcomers received an individualized instructional program tailored to the strengths and needs of the student. Linda Vista Elementary School. Heavy immigration into Linda Vista's neighborhood led to the establishment of an ungraded `Entry' class in which non-Spanish-speaking newcomers were prepared for entry into the first level of sheltered classes. (Spanish-speaking newcomers were placed directly into bilingual classes.) The Entry class typically has about 12 to 15 students who remain in the class until they meet the language arts standards required for articulation to the next level. Students in the Entry class are integrated with all other students for afternoon activities, including science and electives. Graham and Parks School.Designed to meet the needs of Haitian newcomers, the Graham and Parks Creole Bilingual Program took in new students based on their age. Students between 9 and 13 years of age were placed into the 5-8 grade Creole bilingual class, which had 25 students and two bilingual teachers.

Finding #3.10

Creating An Atmosphere of Respect and Cultural Validation. All the exemplary sites worked to validate the cultural and linguistic diversity of the LEP students.

At the exemplary schools, teachers stressed the importance of communicating their respect for LEP students as individuals and for their culture and language as an important foundation for learning. Teachers honored the students' previous experiences by drawing on them in the classroom. Teachers modeled respectful behavior for students. Susan Kovalik & Associates, the external partner at Hanshaw Middle School, trained teachers to create a "threat-free environment" to reduce anxiety about learning. Because transition to English literacy is an awesome challenge for young people, respect and freedom from threat and anxiety were very important attributes for successful LEP programs.

The exemplary schools embraced the history and cultural tradition of their students as a resource enriching the school environment. They designed their language development programs in ways that incorporated student culture. The school staff included native speakers of the students' primary languages who taught some or all of the academic curriculum in native language. This validation of native language also conveyed status to LEP student culture. School support staff, including clerical staff, counselors, social workers, community/parent liaisons, nurses, etc. also spoke the primary language of the students and were able to communicate effectively with parents in their native language.

Exemplary schools drew from the students' culture, history, and traditions as a source of study. In response to research in the field, ⁶ and in accordance with their own visions, schools responded to cultural diversity by designing instructional strategies that could accommodate multiple ways of learning. In the exemplary schools, students learned about their own culture, the traditions and history of the United States, and about the other cultures and traditions represented at the school. ⁷ Examples of the efforts of exemplary schools to draw upon students' experiences and cultural backgrounds are presented in Box I-3.8 on the next page.

Box I-3.8 Exemplary Schools Build on Student Experiences, Make Connections Across Content Areas, and Promote Respect for Cultural Diversity Teachers at Graham and Parks developed writing assignments that allowed students to make connections to their own experiences. Students read a book about the Pilgrims and the Mayflower, went on a field trip to the Plymouth Plantation, and were asked to write an essay comparing the experiences of the Mayflower Pilgrims to their own experiences immigrating from Haiti. The students saw new meaning in the immigration experience of people who looked much different and lived long ago, but experienced some of the same privations and fears. One student drew a map of the harbor of Port Au Prince, Haiti and the Plymouth Harbor, comparing their shape and configuration. Teachers at Horace Mann worked to develop a learning environment that valued multiculturalism and multilingualism. The curriculum engaged students in a learning process relative to the context of student lives. School began each year with an interdisciplinary, thematic unit called Awareness Month. The schoolwide curriculum for the month focused on developing student appreciation and respect for diversity. Each grade level had a theme related to Awareness Month. For sixth graders, the theme was "Building Communities;" for seventh graders, it was "Celebrating Diversity;" and for eighth graders, the theme was "Social Responsibility." Families at each grade level implemented the grade level theme in a variety of ways, culminating in a closing performance for the family and/or for the entire school. Artwork and projects developed and completed during Awareness Month were displayed in the hallways of the school.

Chapter I-3 Endnotes
⁴In an exploratory study of a small number of California middle and high schools, Minicucci and Olsen (1992) found that LEP students were not offered a full academic program in math, science, and social studies in many secondary schools.

⁵For a discussion of this issue, see Cummins, J., "Linguistic Interdependence and the Educational Development of Bilingual Children," Review of Educational Research, 1979, vol. 49, pp. 222-251.

⁶Tharp, 1994, Tharp and Gallimore, 1988.

⁷Sleeter, 1994, Cazden, 1988.
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[3. Approaches to Language Development (part 1)]

[4. High Quality Learning Environments]