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The tripartite system of schools and the Gesamtschule together cater to most students over a wide range of ability. However, students with disabilities or special needs cannot be adequately provided for within the regular school system. For these children, Germany maintains a highly differentiated system of special schools which serve 3 to 4 percent of the school population, although some estimate that as many as 7 percent of students require their services (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994).
Germany's system of special schools for children with physical, behavioral, intellectual, and psychological problems is organized around the idea that the optimal form of special education varies by type of problem. Special schools are differentiated according to a highly articulated set of categories for handicaps drawn from special education pedagogy. Although these special schools fall into one of three broad types—schools for students with learning difficulties and those with behavioral challenges, students with mental retardation, and students with physical handicaps—officially, the system encompasses seven different divisions, which are combined in different ways in the various Länder. These divisions include schools for students who are learning handicapped, behaviorally disturbed, mentally handicapped, physically handicapped, verbally handicapped, or deaf, blind, or nearly blind.
Where special schooling is deemed necessary, students must be categorized by handicap so that they can be properly channeled to the most appropriate schools. Increasingly, there is an effort among persons responsible for making decisions about students' schooling to include in their considerations nonphysical aspects such as the intellectual, emotional, and social development of the student (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994). Yet, the fact that categorization of students into special schooling remains deficient is reflected in the overrepresentation of foreign students among those considered learning disabled. The most frequently attended type of special school is the school that caters to students with learning difficulties, or to those who have suffered from a lack of stimulation in their environment, emotional neglect, and the social impoverishment of their broader environment.
Students with disabilities are generally tracked into the special schools early in their school career. Those with obvious handicaps are given special care even before they begin kindergärten. In the former West Germany, special kindergärtens exist for children with severe handicaps. Some regular kindergärtens specialize in mixed classes where children with and without disabilities learn together (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994). These mixed classes are carried forward in the Grundschule, although such integration is limited in the cases of severe handicap. A model has been developed in which the children with more severe handicaps are at times mixed with their regular counterparts and at other times separated (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994).
Children with less serious problems also may be considered for tracking into special schooling upon their entry into elementary school. However, the goal of special education for children with disabilities is eventual integration into society. This goal has been pursued in different ways, one of which was the development of a differentiated system of special schools in the 1960s and 1970s. The development of this school system has been fairly uniform across the Länder and was agreed to through the KMK, but not with the intention of limiting the consideration of such students only to special schools. More recently there has been a proliferation of efforts that seek integration not only as the goal but as the means as well. Children with disabilities are increasingly dealt with in the context of the regular school system, thereby exposing children with and without disabilities to one another in many ways (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994).
There are different models for integrating children with different types of handicaps into the regular schools, including preparation, different teaching styles, and split classes (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994). Since the end of the 1970s, more and more Länder have introduced so-called integration classes in which existing groups of children with and without disabilities are continued after the preschool level. Still, only certain elementary schools have converted entirely to integrated classes. The common instruction of mixed groups of students requires considerable differentiation within classroom activities. Such differentiation has been more practicable in the former West Germany than in the former East Germany, where lessons have traditionally been taught according to strict curricula guidelines. Although the eastern school system formally imitates that of western Germany, in practice it often still operates as before reunification.
The move toward integration varies according to the Länder and is most pronounced in former East Berlin and Brandenburg. Integrative treatment of children with disabilities is emphasized in new school laws, but it is not clear whether these new laws will lead to the parallel existence of special and regular schools, with ambulatory assistance of special education teachers in regular schools, or whether there will actually be shared classes between children with and without disabilities.
The kindergarten teachers' report carries a lot of weight in the decision to allow a child to begin elementary school. In West Germany, the parents had a large say in the process of placing the child in a special school. In East Germany, the parents had little say (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994). Since unification in 1990 and the consequent modification of special education in the former East Germany to emulate the special school system of the West, parents in the former East Germany now have a greater say in their children's tracking into special education.
If there is any doubt, the child can be admitted to elementary school on a trial basis, or the child's entry can be delayed a year. Children may be held back if they exhibit deficits in physical, intellectual, and behavioral development. Children who are not accepted into the first grade will usually spend the year either at a preclass group in the elementary school or at the school kindergarten. In most cases, such children enter elementary school the following year without difficulty (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994). If a child is still not deemed mature enough to enter elementary school after being held back a year, that child can be held back again or admitted to a special school.
Elementary schools attempt to remedy problems before considering special schooling, especially for children with behavioral and learning problems. Extra hours of instruction are offered for such children. These extra hours involve small group work in which the content is explained again. In many Länder, elementary schools offer 2 to 3 facilitation hours a week in which the teachers pay special attention to children with difficulties. Some schools organize special play groups for children with behavioral problems in order to foster their social development. Only in special cases will a student be held back a year due to lack of accomplishment. It is generally believed that holding back a student in elementary school tends to further hinder the child's development (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994).
If the student still has problems, some schools offer so-called small classes with about 10 students per teacher to ensure that more intensive attention is paid to each child. Sometimes these classes are restricted to children with the same type of difficulty. Since many of the children with problems come from socially disadvantaged groups, some communities offer child care outside the school that is geared to the special needs of these children.
It is very difficult for students with disabilities to make the transition from elementary into secondary schooling because schooling at the secondary level emphasizes performance in academic subjects. As a result, the integration of children with disabilities into elementary school is especially difficult because parents are hesitant to embark their children on an educational path that terminates at the end of elementary school. Although attempts to integrate children with disabilities into secondary education have met with some success, on the whole, such experiments have been undertaken only slowly and with hesitation. It is only since the mid-1980s that the push toward integration has taken on notable momentum (Krappmann and Benkmann 1994).
Debate Concerning Integration
The integration of children with disabilities into normal schools has been the subject of ongoing debate in Germany. Parents, the science council, and the Bund-Länder Kommission (BLK) have advocated integration. The KMK has emphasized the advantages of special schools and has warned against integration when it fails to provide the specialized care typical of the special schools. This debate on special schooling also reflects the broader political debate between conservatives and liberals. Conservatives point to the usefulness of special schools in providing for the special needs of students with disabilities. Segregated institutions help teachers to focus more closely on the specific weaknesses associated with particular handicaps. The emphasis of conservatives on the necessity of special schooling builds on their assumptions concerning the relative immutability of ability. Liberals, by contrast, point to the potential of segregated institutions to limit the opportunities for special students. From the liberal perspective, students with disabilities suffer when they are deprived of opportunities for interaction with other students. Because ability is understood as largely a reflection of context, the segregation of students with disabilities in special schools is assumed to perpetuate their difficulties and rob them of the potential benefit of interacting with other students.
The success of special schooling in integrating students into broader society is mixed. On average (though with great variation among the Länder), every eighth student in special schools is able to return to the regular school. The most successful are students with physical handicaps, one-third of whom complete their secondary education. Among these are students who complete Realschule or Gymnasium. Students who are hard of hearing or nearly blind have been especially successful among students with disabilities in completing higher tracks of schooling.
Since the late 1950s, Germany has seen a great influx of workers from other countries, primarily Turkey, the former Yugoslavia, Greece, Spain, and Italy. The children of these workers are required to attend German schools from the age of 6 to the age of 16. In 1991, there were 798,800 foreign students in Germany; however, this number excludes refugee children and immigrants who are considered of German origin (Aussiedler) but lack knowledge of the German language and culture. In 1990, the number of new immigrants from Poland, Romania, and the former Soviet Union rose to 400,000 (Bosch 1992).
Consequently, immigrant and foreign students represent a notable percentage of the total number of students in Germany. In 1991-92, foreign students accounted (in the western states) for 11.4 percent of elementary school students, 20 percent of Hauptschule students, 8.1 percent of Realschule students, 5.1 percent of Gymnasium students, and 17.5 percent of special education students (Arbeitsgruppe Bildungsbericht [MPI] 1994). Generally, the number of foreign students should not exceed 30 percent of the total class; however, if more than half of the foreign students in a class are able to follow instruction in German, that rule may be overlooked (SSBS 1993). In some regions, the concentration of foreign students exceeds one-third, creating an imbalance in which teachers feel they cannot provide adequate instruction (MPI 1994).
In an effort to integrate children from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds into the classroom, foreign students attend regular schools with German students. In elementary school, language problems are tackled through lesson differentiation and remedial teaching (Förderunterricht). The teacher prepares individual tasks tailored to each student's strengths and weaknesses. While students work alone or with partners, the teacher has an opportunity to assist students individually (Bosch 1992). If students are unable to participate fully in a class because of language barriers, special preparatory classes are offered at both the elementary and secondary level. In Berlin, for example, foreign students are taught for up to 2 years in groups of no more than 15 before entry into regular classes (SSBS 1993).
Schools sometimes employ foreign teachers who teach their native language, national history, and religion. In the Hauptschule, foreign students may be exempt from lessons in the first foreign language, and receive instead additional German lessons. However, this means that a transition to a Realschule or Gymnasium is not feasible since students do not have the necessary first-language requirement. Since 1981-82, Turkish students in Berlin have had the option of choosing Turkish as a first foreign language at some schools. If these students choose to transfer to a Realschule or Gymnasium, they are required to study English as their second language (SSBS 1993).
Teachers of foreign students have several support mechanisms available. For example, foreign and native teachers work closely together and help each other cope with the problems arising from cultural differences. Teachers also have opportunities to attend classes that prepare them for dealing with foreign students in the classroom, and universities offer many courses for dealing with the multicultural classroom. By taking several classes and learning one of the most common foreign languages in the classroom, such as Turkish, prospective teachers can obtain certification in teaching foreign students (Ausländerpädagogik). This qualification enhances job prospects, especially for elementary school and Hauptschule teachers.
Due to the structure of German education, ability is distributed differently across educational institutions. Schools with different ability profiles face different problems relating to ability, and engage in practices designed specifically to meet these problems.
The Grundschule must deal with great heterogeneity in ability. Practices in the Grundschule aim both to enable the individual student to achieve his or her best and to assess each student's level of ability. Once an initial sorting has taken place among students in the lower secondary level, the issues of ability facing each of the types of school differ. The Gymnasium seeks to maintain a high standard of education, and deals with ability differences through a differentiated curriculum and performance-oriented assessment. Similarly, the Realschule seeks to challenge its students through the maintenance of rigorous criteria for success. Because it deals with a broader range of interests and ability than the Gymnasium, the Realschule offers a broader array of courses to meet the needs of individual students. Neither the Gymnasium nor the Realschule is geared specifically to the less able students, and neither offers any substantial remedial education. Both these schools seek to tap the abilities of their students by stressing conformity to a standard of performance. By contrast, the Hauptschule does deal with less able students and seeks to meet students' needs rather than impose a uniform standard of performance. Remedial education plays an important role in the Hauptschule. In addition, the two types of Gesamtschule—cooperative and integrated—seek to avoid the segregation of students by ability. The cooperative Gesamtschule follows practices similar to those of the Gymnasium, Realschule, and Hauptschule, but provides students from different tracks with the opportunity to interact in the context of a single school organization. The integrated Gesamtschule deals with differences in ability through a differentiated system of coursework.
In addition to the normal school system, Germany maintains a highly differentiated system of special schools for students with disabilities and other special needs. Recent efforts have been made to integrate these students into regular schools. Finally, the issue of foreign students has been the focus of much debate in recent years. Efforts to integrate these students into German school life have met with mixed success.
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[The Perception of Ability Differences in German Education - References]